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 The Indus Valley civilization, one of the oldest in the world, goes back at
least 5,000 years. Aryan tribes from the northwest invaded about 1500 B.C.;
their merger with the earlier inhabitants created the classical Indian
culture. Arab incursions starting in the 8th century and Turkish in 12th
were followed by European traders, beginning in the late 15th century. By
the 19th century, Britain had assumed political control of virtually all
Indian lands. Nonviolent resistance to British colonialism under Mohandas
GANDHI and Jawaharlal NEHRU led to independence in 1947. The subcontinent
was divided into the secular state of India and the smaller Muslim state of
Pakistan. A third war between the two countries in 1971 resulted in East
Pakistan becoming the separate nation of Bangladesh. Fundamental concerns in
India include the ongoing dispute with Pakistan over Kashmir, massive
overpopulation, environmental degradation, extensive poverty, and ethnic and
religious strife, all this despite impressive gains in economic investment
and output.
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